Intra-familial child sexual abuse, often referred to as family sexual abuse, is a deeply concerning issue that occurs within the seemingly safe environment of a family. This form of abuse involves a child being sexually abused by a family member, which can include relatives or individuals considered part of the family unit, such as foster carers or a parent’s partner.
The family setting is, unfortunately, a prevalent context for child sexual abuse. Shockingly, it accounts for nearly half of all reported child sexual abuse offenses in England and Wales. This stark statistic underscores the urgent need to understand and address family sexual abuse effectively.
While perpetrators of family sexual abuse are predominantly male, it is crucial to acknowledge that females can also be abusers. Furthermore, abuse can be perpetrated not only by adults but also by other children within the family.
Family members can also be implicated in other forms of child sexual exploitation, including the creation and distribution of child sexual abuse material (like images or videos) and organized abuse networks. Therefore, professionals assessing cases of suspected family sexual abuse must remain vigilant about the potential presence of other forms of exploitation.
Family sexual abuse frequently co-occurs with other forms of maltreatment, such as physical or emotional abuse and neglect. Research highlights strong links between child abuse and domestic violence, childhood sexual abuse and adolescent sexual victimization, and the interconnectedness of family and extra-familial victimization.
Compared to abuse outside the family, family sexual abuse often begins at an earlier age and can persist for many years. Abuse by a family member, especially a parent or primary caregiver, can be particularly traumatic due to the profound betrayal, stigma, and secrecy involved. For victims, the long-term consequences can be devastating, including poorer physical and mental health, reduced income, difficulties in forming healthy relationships, and an increased risk of revictimization throughout life.
The impact of family sexual abuse is multifaceted and depends on various factors, including the nature, extent, and duration of the abuse, other childhood experiences, and, crucially, the support the child receives. Supportive responses from non-abusing caregivers play a vital role in mitigating the harm.
A significant portion of family sexual abuse remains hidden and unreported. Children may be afraid of their abusers, reluctant to cause them trouble, believe they are to blame, fear family repercussions if they disclose, or simply fail to recognize their experiences as abuse. Children with disabilities and those from minority ethnic communities may face additional barriers to seeking help. This underscores the critical need for professionals to be vigilant for signs of child sexual abuse and equipped to offer appropriate support. Professionals must be trustworthy, genuine, empathetic, empower children with choice, control, and safety, and act as advocates.
Support and therapy for children, especially when involving non-abusing parents, can have a positive and transformative impact. Services that prioritize listening to, believing, and respecting children and non-abusing family members are invaluable, yet their availability remains inconsistent and insufficient.
Note: In this discussion, “child” generally refers to anyone under 18 years of age.
Defining Family Sexual Abuse
While there isn’t a universally agreed-upon definition of family sexual abuse, it is broadly understood to encompass abuse by relatives (parents, siblings, grandparents, etc.) and also by individuals closely connected to or considered “family” by the child, such as foster parents or a parent’s romantic partner.
This understanding aligns with guidelines from the Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) concerning the Sexual Offences Act 2003. The CPS recognizes that modern family structures are diverse and that abuse can occur when someone lives in the same household as a child and assumes a position of trust or authority, in addition to abuse within relationships defined by blood, adoption, fostering, marriage, or cohabitation. (Crown Prosecution Service 2022)
Given the diverse forms families take, when considering whether abuse constitutes family sexual abuse, the most crucial question for professionals is: “Did the abuser feel like family to the child?” This child-centered perspective is paramount in understanding the dynamics and impact of this type of abuse.
The Scope of Family Sexual Abuse: Prevalence and Statistics
The true extent of child sexual abuse, including family sexual abuse, is difficult to ascertain. However, studies suggest that approximately one in ten children (15% of girls and 5% of boys) experience some form of sexual abuse before reaching the age of 16. Alarmingly, abuse within the family environment accounts for nearly half of all child sexual abuse offenses reported to law enforcement in England and Wales. Data from the 2019 Crime Survey for England and Wales (CSEW) indicates that around a quarter to a third of child sexual abuse survivors, and approximately a third to a half of those who experienced penetration or rape, reported that a family member was involved in the abuse.
Men are the perpetrators in the majority of child sexual abuse cases, including those within families, though abuse by women does occur. Among respondents to the 2019 CSEW who reported experiencing sexual abuse before age 16, 5% identified their fathers as abusers, 6% stepfathers, 1% mothers, and 0.3% stepmothers. A significant 22% reported abuse by other family members (gender unspecified). Another UK study revealed that about a quarter of family sexual abuse cases involved perpetrators under the age of 18, highlighting the issue of sibling sexual abuse.
Research consistently indicates that family sexual abuse, compared to abuse by individuals outside the family, typically starts at a younger age, involves more severe and frequent abuse over longer periods, and almost always occurs within complex relationships characterized by emotional and practical dependence, power imbalances, and control dynamics.
Family sexual abuse transcends ethnic boundaries, occurring in families across all ethnicities. However, victims and survivors from minority ethnic communities often face additional obstacles in disclosing abuse and accessing appropriate support. High levels of secrecy, shame, and stigma within certain communities, coupled with potential cultural biases among professionals, can create significant barriers to reporting and hinder effective child protection efforts. Children from minority ethnic backgrounds are often underrepresented in agency data, meaning their experiences of family sexual abuse, along with other forms of abuse, are even more likely to be overlooked by official systems compared to their White counterparts.
Children with disabilities are at a heightened risk of sexual abuse compared to non-disabled children. Their increased dependence on caregivers, potential communication barriers, and the possibility of being underestimated as potential victims of family sexual abuse, combined with a lack of specialized knowledge among professionals, can lead to low disclosure rates and inadequate responses.
While most research focuses on abuse by individual family members, families can also be implicated in organized child abuse rings involving multiple perpetrators, child sexual exploitation, or the production and distribution of child sexual abuse material, such as images and videos. Surveys of adult survivors have revealed that family members were involved in approximately half of cases related to producing such material, with biological/adoptive parents or step-parents frequently being the primary producers. Analysis of child sexual abuse images and videos suggests that most are created in home settings, and the most frequently traded online materials depict the abuse of pre-pubescent girls by their fathers.
Parental Figures as Abusers
Fathers and stepfathers are the most commonly convicted perpetrators of family sexual abuse. Compared to convicted abusers outside the family, these parental figures are more likely to have histories of childhood sexual abuse, family abuse and neglect, and insecure parental attachment. However, they are significantly less likely to exhibit antisocial tendencies or the specific “sexual interests” often observed in extra-familial offenders.
Abuse by mothers and female caregivers is considerably less frequent. A study of 986 children referred to a sexual assault referral center in England over three years found that female parental figures (mothers, stepmothers, main carers) were suspected of abuse in only 18 cases, compared to 177 cases involving male parental figures. When women do sexually abuse children, they are more likely to abuse their own children or children regularly in their care, rather than children outside the family. When women are involved in co-offending, it is often in partnership with an intimate male partner.
Limited research exists on the methods parents who abuse use to manipulate or silence their children. One study identified that some parents attempt to shape their child’s perception of sexual acts by framing the abuse as a healthy expression of love and parenting, a pleasurable experience, or a deserved punishment. Analysis of forensic interviews with children in Israel revealed prolonged grooming processes by some fathers, lasting months or years, where love and attachment were intertwined with inappropriate sexualized touch and talk. In some interviews, children described their father’s immense power over the entire family and his ability to instill terror simply through his presence, without needing words or actions. Children also emphasized how the abuse felt “normal” because it occurred in routine, everyday contexts—during homework, bathing, or watching television—and sometimes even when other family members were present.
Sibling Sexual Abuse
Incidents of sexual behavior between siblings can be relatively common, and when there’s no underlying power imbalance, they may not necessarily be abusive. However, abusive sexual behavior by a sibling can have lasting negative impacts and is potentially as serious as other forms of family sexual abuse.
Research with adult survivors of abusive sexual behavior by siblings suggests that such abuse often occurs within families marked by domestic violence, physical punishment, and parent-child sexual abuse. In the most severely dysfunctional families, multiple abusive dynamics may exist: children may be abused by and also abuse other siblings, witness abuse, and/or attempt to protect younger siblings.
Identifying Family Sexual Abuse: Recognizing the Signs
A major challenge in accurately estimating the prevalence of family sexual abuse is that much of it remains undetected. The 2019 Crime Survey for England and Wales revealed that 64% of respondents who had experienced rape or penetrative sexual abuse by a parent, step-parent, or guardian had not disclosed it at the time. It’s estimated that only one in eight victims of family sexual abuse come to the attention of statutory authorities. This underscores the critical need for professionals and responsible adults to recognize potential signs of abuse and take appropriate action. The CSA Centre’s Key Messages from Research on Identifying and Responding to Disclosures of Child Sexual Abuse provides detailed information on this topic.
Children remain silent about family sexual abuse for various reasons, including fear of the abuser, not wanting to get the abuser in trouble, feeling responsible for the abuse, and fearing the consequences for their family if they disclose. Additionally, many victims do not recognize their experiences as abuse until much later in life, often as adults.
Children often do not “tell” directly; instead, their behavior and demeanor may indicate that something is wrong. There may also be potential indicators in the behavior of potential abusers. Even when children do disclose, they are not always believed or heard. As previously mentioned, children with disabilities and those from minority ethnic communities face greater barriers to disclosure. Children abused by female family members may encounter even higher levels of disbelief from professionals, who may also underestimate the seriousness of such abuse.
The Far-Reaching Impacts of Family Sexual Abuse
The impact of sexual abuse during childhood or adolescence is shaped by factors like the duration of the abuse, the degree of physical intrusion, the age at onset, the relationship with the abuser(s), the presence of other adverse experiences, and the availability of support in the child’s life. The CSA Centre’s Key Messages from Research on the Impacts of Child Sexual Abuse offers comprehensive information on this subject.
While the feelings of powerlessness, betrayal, and confusion resulting from sexual abuse are not unique to family sexual abuse, their combination and intensity within the family context can make this form of abuse particularly damaging.
Evidence indicates that family sexual abuse frequently occurs alongside other forms of physical or emotional abuse or neglect. Strong correlations exist between child abuse and domestic violence, childhood sexual abuse and later victimization in adolescence, and the overlap between family and extra-familial victimization.
Child sexual abuse is strongly linked to negative physical and mental health outcomes, relationship difficulties, socio-economic challenges, and an increased risk of further victimization. However, it is important to note that not every child who experiences sexual abuse suffers severe long-term consequences. The impact of family sexual abuse tends to be amplified when combined with other adversities or multiple forms of maltreatment, when it involves multiple abusers or organized networks, or when experiences of interpersonal violence and abuse accumulate throughout life.
Effective Responses to Family Sexual Abuse: Support and Intervention
Many children who experience family sexual abuse receive no support because the abuse remains undisclosed, and those around them fail to recognize the signs. When abuse is identified, professional responses and service availability vary significantly. While children emphasize the importance of support after disclosing, their experiences often suggest that services fail to adequately support them through child protection and legal processes. Children value support from professionals who are trustworthy, genuine, optimistic, and encouraging; demonstrate care and compassion; empower them with choice, control, and safety; and provide advocacy. Satisfaction levels are often higher with services provided by voluntary sector organizations—including rape crisis centers, counseling services, and independent sexual violence advisors—than with statutory services like the police, hospitals, and social care.
Child Protection Responses: Strengthening Safeguards
Child protection responses to family sexual abuse have been affected by shifting priorities, with certain forms of abuse receiving less attention as local authorities and partner agencies have focused on child sexual exploitation or prioritized issues like the impact of domestic violence or criminal exploitation on children. Low rates of identification of family sexual abuse may also reflect professional and organizational anxieties about addressing sexual abuse within families: the rarity and difficulty of children disclosing, limited professional understanding of denial and retraction, and the challenges of protecting children in complex family situations. These factors can contribute to feelings of professional helplessness.
A joint targeted area inspection of the multi-agency response to family sexual abuse identified numerous shortcomings, including:
- Professionals lacking the necessary training and knowledge to identify and protect children.
- Practice in this area being overly police-led and not sufficiently child-centered.
- Family sexual abuse being given insufficient priority, and systems developed for child sexual exploitation not being applied to abuse within families.
- Professionals relying too heavily on children to verbally disclose abuse.
- Unrealistic expectations of mothers’ abilities to protect their children with minimal support.
Improvement requires confident professionals who are skilled in direct work with children and a child protection system that is supportive rather than bureaucratic and overly focused on targets.
Criminal Justice Interventions: Ensuring Accountability
While police recording of child sexual abuse offenses increased in recent years before leveling off in 2019/20, there has been a sharp decline in the proportion of investigations resulting in charges or summonses—from 32% in 2014/15 to 11% in 2021/22. Cases involving sexual exploitation, grooming, or child sexual abuse images are more likely to lead to prosecutions than those involving rape or sexual assault. It is likely that most family sexual abuse cases involve rape or sexual assault, but data on the relationship between abuser and victim is not readily available.
The 2020 joint targeted area inspection mentioned earlier found that the quality of criminal investigations into family sexual abuse was sometimes inadequate, with complex cases being handled by less experienced officers and significant delays that put children at risk of further abuse.
Therapeutic Support: Promoting Healing and Recovery
Various psychosocial interventions offered to adult and adolescent survivors of sexual violence and abuse have demonstrated effectiveness in improving mental health and well-being. However, there is a shortage of therapeutic support for children who have experienced sexual abuse, and the availability of services varies widely depending on local funding. Support is often time-limited, with no provision for addressing the later emergence of trauma-related impacts.
Longer-term, trauma-focused interventions that involve both the child and a non-abusing parent have the strongest evidence base for positive outcomes.
Family-Focused Support: Addressing the Wider Family System
Interventions that focus on the entire family system, not just the individual child, are crucial. Children often feel responsible for their family’s distress in the aftermath of sexual abuse, and providing support to non-abusing family members can help alleviate this burden.
Discovering that their child has been sexually abused is a profound life crisis for a non-abusing parent, often with long-term consequences for their mental health. This can be especially true if the non-abusing parent has a history of childhood sexual abuse, as it may trigger memories of their own traumatic experiences. When the suspected abuser is the non-abusing parent’s partner or former partner, the impact is both emotional and practical, potentially leading to family breakdown and housing and financial instability.
When sibling sexual abuse is identified, it also constitutes a family crisis. Typical parental responses include shock, disbelief, anger, and self-blame. Parents may feel torn between the needs of the child who has caused harm and the child who has been harmed.
A non-abusing parent’s response upon discovering family sexual abuse is critical. Strong parental support is linked to better long-term outcomes for children, making it all the more important that parents receive adequate professional support.
Most family support initiatives focus on the needs of non-abusing parents, typically mothers. The impact of family sexual abuse on all children in the family—whether they are victims, have witnessed the abuse, are unaware of it, or have themselves abused a sibling—is often overlooked. When family sexual abuse involves sibling abuse, professional intervention that assesses and addresses the entire family’s needs has been shown to improve the recovery of children who have harmed, those who have been harmed, and their parents and other siblings. However, family-based intervention is not always feasible or advisable, particularly if the family is too disorganized, chaotic, or abusive. One small study found that in eight out of nine families where a parent or foster carer reported concerning sexual behavior and siblings remained living together or had unsupervised contact, there was a subsequent incident of concerning sexual behavior between siblings or another child in the family.
Some researchers conclude that the support needs of non-abusing caregivers are inseparable from those of their child, and professionals should not overlook their distress. Mothers often report feeling blamed, judged, and misunderstood by friends and other family members. Support from professionals who are supportive, empathetic, and knowledgeable about the issue is highly valued.
Findings from trials of trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) highlight the importance of caregiver involvement and education in achieving positive outcomes for children and reducing caregiver stress. Strong evidence supports the effectiveness of CBT for non-abusing parents and school-age children in preventing the worsening of child mental health and/or the recurrence of abuse.
Evaluation of the NSPCC’s ‘Women as Protectors’ program (specifically aimed at mothers and carers in contact with men who pose a risk of sexual harm to children) demonstrated a positive impact on women’s capacity to protect their children, and many participants experienced sustained mental and emotional health stability. Women particularly valued the group work component of the program.
Other evaluations have found that non-abusing parents participating in support groups report improved well-being and confidence, reduced stress, and greater ability to care for their child and manage relationships with professionals. Groups help participants build crucial social networks with others sharing similar experiences, normalize children’s behavior, and potentially reduce depression.
Footnotes
Crown Prosecution Service (2022) Rape and Sexual Offences – Chapter 7: Key Legislation and Offences. London: CPS.
Read the earlier 2018 paper
